Notes on Lee & Labroo (2004) – Conceptual and Perceptual Fluency on Brand Evaluation

Paper: “The Effect of Conceptual and Perceptual Fluency on Brand Evaluation,” Journal of Marketing Research, 41 (2), 151–65.

Main Topic or Phenomenon

This paper examines how processing fluency affects consumer brand evaluation and attitude formation. The research extends the traditional mere exposure effect by distinguishing between two types of fluency: perceptual fluency (ease of identifying physical features) and conceptual fluency (ease with which meaning comes to mind). The central phenomenon is that consumers develop more favorable attitudes toward brands that are easier to process, but this effect can be reversed when fluency is associated with negative valence.

Think of fluency like a mental “ease meter”:

• When your brain processes something smoothly = you like it more
• When processing feels difficult or activates bad thoughts = you like it less

The two types work differently:

• Perceptual fluency = “I’ve seen this logo/design before” (visual recognition)
• Conceptual fluency = “This brand makes sense in this situation” (contextual fit)

The critical insight: Context matters enormously. A beer ad during a sports game feels “right” and creates positive fluency. The same beer ad during a documentary about alcoholism would create negative fluency despite being contextually related.

Theoretical Construct

Processing Fluency: The subjective ease with which consumers can process a stimulus. Think of it like mental “smoothness” - some things just feel easier to think about or recognize.

Perceptual Fluency: “I’ve Seen This Before”

The ease with which you can visually identify and recognize a stimulus based on its physical features.

Real-World Examples:

• Coca-Cola’s red logo: After seeing it thousands of times, your brain instantly recognizes the red color and distinctive font, even from a distance or partial view
• McDonald’s golden arches: You can spot those yellow arches from your car before you can even read the text
• iPhone home button/design: Apple users can instantly recognize an iPhone’s physical design elements

How it works: Your brain says “I’ve processed this exact visual before, so it’s easy for me to identify now” → this ease feels good → you like the brand more.

Conceptual Fluency: “This Makes Sense Here”

The ease with which something comes to mind based on meaning, context, or associations.

Real-World Examples:

Predictive Context Examples:

• Seeing Gatorade in a gym setting: Your brain thinks “sports drink in athletic context = makes perfect sense” → feels mentally smooth → positive attitude
• Starbucks near a university campus: Coffee shop + studying students = natural fit → conceptual fluency
• Sunscreen ads during summer TV shows: Beach scenes + sun protection = expected → easy to process

Semantic Priming Examples:

• Peanut butter priming jelly: Seeing Jif peanut butter ads makes you think more positively about Smucker’s jelly (complementary products)
• Burger King ads affecting McDonald’s: Thinking about fast food burgers makes all burger brands more accessible
• Christmas music in stores: Holiday songs make gift-related products feel more relevant and appealing

The Framework: How This Actually Works in Your Brain

Step 1: Exposure/Context

• You see an ad for Nike shoes while watching a basketball game
• OR you previously saw the Nike swoosh logo multiple times

Step 2: Processing

• Perceptual: “I recognize that swoosh shape easily” (if you’ve seen it before)
• Conceptual: “Athletic shoes + basketball = perfect match” (contextual fit)

Step 3: Fluency Experience

• Your brain processes this information smoothly and easily
• This feels good (like when a song has a catchy, easy-to-follow melody)

Step 4: Attitude Formation

• You unconsciously think: “This feels right/easy/smooth”
• This positive feeling transfers to your opinion of Nike
• Result: More favorable brand attitude

When Fluency Backfires: The Negative Valence Effect

Example: Head & Shoulders shampoo primed by lice treatment ads

• You see an ad for RID lice treatment shampoo
• Later, you see Head & Shoulders dandruff shampoo
• Conceptual fluency occurs: Hair treatment products are related, so H&S comes to mind easily
• BUT negative associations activate: Lice = gross, embarrassing, problematic
• Result: Despite being conceptually fluent, you now like Head & Shoulders LESS

Real-World Marketing Failures:

• Corona beer during COVID-19: The name became conceptually fluent due to coronavirus news, but with negative associations
• Ayds diet candy: When AIDS became prominent, the brand name created unwanted conceptual fluency with negative health associations

Key Findings

1. Conceptual Fluency Independently Improves Brand Evaluation

What the study found: Brands in predictive contexts get better ratings, even without prior exposure.

Real-world translation:

• Netflix advertising during evening prime time: Streaming service + relaxation time = natural fit → viewers like Netflix more
• Red Bull sponsoring extreme sports events: Energy drink + high-energy activities = perfect match → positive brand associations
• Hallmark ads during romantic movie scenes: Greeting cards + emotional moments = contextual fluency

2. Perceptual + Conceptual Fluency = Maximum Impact

What the study found: When both types of fluency work together, the positive effect is strongest.

Real-world example - Apple’s strategy:

• Perceptual fluency: You’ve seen the Apple logo thousands of times (easy recognition)
• Conceptual fluency: Apple stores in tech-savvy urban areas + minimalist design matching tech innovation context
• Combined result: Maximum positive brand attitude

3. Negative Associations Reverse the Effect

What the study found: Hair conditioner primed by lice shampoo got worse ratings despite being conceptually fluent.

Real-world disasters:

• United Airlines: After passenger dragging incident, seeing United ads during travel shows created conceptual fluency (airline + travel context) but activated negative associations (poor customer service)
• Wells Fargo: Bank ads during financial news segments create contextual fit, but might activate negative associations from scandals

4. Effects Are Brand-Specific, Not General Mood

What this means: The fluency effect only helps the specific brand that benefits from easier processing, not random other brands.

Real-world implication:

• Super Bowl beer ads don’t help snack brands: Budweiser’s funny commercial during football doesn’t make you like Doritos more
• Starbucks store music doesn’t improve opinions about nearby McDonald’s: The coffee shop ambiance only benefits coffee-related decisions

Boundary Conditions with Real Examples

Valence of Associations: The Make-or-Break Factor

Positive/Neutral Associations → Good outcomes:

• Michelin ads during car shows: Tires + automotive context = safety focus → positive
• Gatorade at marathons: Sports drink + endurance athletics = performance enhancement → positive

Negative Associations → Backfire:

• Fast food ads during health documentaries: McDonald’s + obesity discussion = health concerns → negative
• Cigarette brand sponsorship of youth events: Tobacco + young people = health risks → negative backlash

Building on Previous Work

Extends Mere Exposure Research:

• Traditional mere exposure focused primarily on perceptual fluency effects
• This paper demonstrates conceptual fluency as an independent pathway to attitude change
• Reconciles conflicting findings (Nedungadi 1990 vs. Whittlesea 1993) by showing different operationalizations of conceptual fluency vary in strength

Challenges Existing Assumptions:

• Contradicts the assumption that all fluency effects are positive
• Shows that increasing accessibility doesn’t always improve evaluation (contrary to simple accessibility models)
• Provides evidence against pure affect transfer explanations by showing stimulus-specific effects

Methodological Contributions:

• Develops cleaner tests of conceptual vs. perceptual fluency through systematic manipulation
• Rules out alternative explanations (affect transfer, mood states) through careful control conditions

Major Theoretical Contribution

The paper’s primary theoretical contribution is establishing conceptual fluency as a distinct route to attitude formation that operates independently of perceptual fluency. This extends processing fluency theory from perceptual identification to semantic accessibility. The critical insight is that the valence of associations activated during fluent processing determines the direction of attitude change, not just the ease of processing itself. This provides a more nuanced understanding of when and why accessibility leads to preference.

Major Managerial Implications with Strategic Examples

Strategic Context Placement

The insight: Put your brand where it naturally belongs, and consumers will like it more.

Successful implementations:

• Amazon Prime ads during busy holiday seasons: Package delivery service + gift-giving stress = perfect timing
• Uber advertising near airports: Ride service + travel context = natural fit
• Zoom marketing during remote work content: Video conferencing + work-from-home = contextual relevance

Category-Level Advertising Benefits

The insight: Sometimes advertising the product category helps your specific brand.

Real examples:

• “Got Milk?” campaign helped all milk brands: Generic milk advertising increased conceptual fluency for dairy, benefiting Horizon, Organic Valley, etc.
• Tourism board ads for destinations: “Visit California” campaigns make specific hotels, restaurants, and attractions in California more appealing
• Industry association campaigns: “Beef. It’s What’s for Dinner” helped all beef brands by making red meat conceptually fluent in meal planning contexts

Complementary Product Strategy

The insight: Partner with or advertise near related products that prime positive associations.

Smart partnerships:

• Netflix + pizza delivery apps: Streaming + comfort food = perfect conceptual pairing
• Nike + music streaming services: Athletic wear + workout playlists = exercise context
• Home Depot + HGTV shows: Hardware store + home improvement content = DIY project mindset

Risk Management: Avoiding Negative Fluency

The insight: Be careful what your brand gets associated with, even if it increases awareness.

What to avoid:

• Luxury brands during economic crisis coverage: BMW ads during recession news create conceptual fluency but activate negative associations (economic hardship)
• Alcohol brands near addiction/health content: Beer commercials during health documentaries create problematic associations
• Fashion brands during body image discussions: Clothing ads during eating disorder awareness content risk negative conceptual links

Unexplored Theoretical Factors

Individual Difference Moderators:

• Cognitive style (analytical vs. intuitive processors): May affect reliance on fluency cues
• Need for cognition: High NFC individuals might be less influenced by fluency, more by substantive information
• Cultural differences: Individualistic vs. collectivistic orientation might affect fluency processing

Contextual Moderators:

• Processing motivation: High motivation contexts might reduce fluency effects as consumers engage in more systematic processing
• Time pressure: May amplify fluency effects by forcing reliance on processing ease
• Competitive context: Presence of multiple alternatives might change how fluency affects choice

Relationship-Based Moderators:

• Consumer-brand relationship strength: Existing strong relationships might buffer against negative fluency effects
• Regulatory focus: Promotion vs. prevention focus might interact with fluency valence
• Involvement level: Product category involvement might moderate when consumers rely on fluency cues

Methodological Extensions:

• Temporal dynamics: How long do fluency effects last? Do they decay or strengthen over time?
• Interaction effects: How do conceptual and perceptual fluency interact rather than just add?
• Neural mechanisms: What are the underlying cognitive processes that create these fluency effects?

Reference

Lee, Angela Y. and Aparna A. Labroo (2004), “The Effect of Conceptual and Perceptual Fluency on Brand Evaluation,” Journal of Marketing Research, 41 (2), 151–65.